外销合同英文

2024-10-17

外销合同英文(精选8篇)

外销合同英文 篇1

外销合同内容英文常用用法

注:本文只是列举缮制外销合同时比较常用的英语表达,在具体实践中可以有其他表达方式。

Say total栏

一般先填写货币种类,如U.S Dollars

然后写大些金额

最后写上“整”,英文为“only”

例如:U.S.DOLLARS ELEVEN THOUSAND TWO HANDRED ONLY

Payment栏

选择相应栏目,如选择L/C,应在后面写明L/C类型、金额及受益人。

如:BY 100% IRREVOCABLE SIGHT LETTER OF CREDIT IN THE SELLER’S FAVOR.Packing栏

填上商品的包装信息

Shipment栏

填写何时,货物将从何地运往何地,信用证应何时达到,分批装运和转船运输是否允许。表达如下

All of the goods shall be shipped on or before Sep.20, 2004 subject to L/C reaching the SELLER by the end of August, 2004.Partial shipments and transshipment are not allowed.Shipping Mark栏

填上唛头信息

Quality栏

如果使用的是样品交易,可以写上产品质量须根据某年某月某日某人提交的样品。As per sample(sample no.ST1101)submitted by the seller on July, 1, 200

4Insurance栏

如果是FOB或CFR术语,直接写上由买家购买保险。

如:Insurance to be covered by the buyer.如果是CIF术语,得写明谁、购买哪种表现,使用哪种条款,购买多少保险,以及赔付地和赔付币种。

如:The SELLER shall arrange marine insurance covering ICC(A)plus institute War Risks for 110% of CIF value and provide of claim, if any, payable in Canada, with U.S.Currency.Remarks栏

如果有补充,可以在此栏填写。

注意:其实这些内容上课都讲过,需要大家课后复习,这些内容考试很可能考到。另外,针对大家的上机操作,我非常不满意,大家平时没有好好学,真正用到知识的时候都忘了。希望大家把所有内容,包括PPT和课本好好复习,下次别让我解答一些课本已有或者上课讲过的内容了!切记!

外销合同英文 篇2

国际项目的运行在很大程度上是合同的签订与执行过程,对于走出国门不久的部分油服企业,要干好国际项目,签好合同乃是重中之重,那么理解合同则是签订与执行的重要前提。理解有两个层面,首先要从字面以及条款的层面懂得文字意思,更重要的是从技术以及商务层面把握业主的意图,尤其对于第二层面,我们在合同谈判的时候就要注意,力求在这一阶段维护自身利益并规避风险。

英文合同在国际贸易中目前占主体地位,尤其对于油服项目,几乎全部采用英文合同。英文合同实际传承英美法系的理念,贯穿着许多英美法的概念和思维,这与理解中文合同不但存在语言的隔阂,文化上的差异更需要注意。油服项目的英文合同多由行业内的主要业主与承包商起草,历经长时间的磨合,形成了许多格式化的语言与条款,主要内容其实大同小异。下面就英文工程合同主要条款进行分析。

一、定义

出于合同语言精确的特点,多数合同都包含定义条款,明确合同中涉及的重要概念,比如工作范围、工作地点等,虽然不涉及风险,但为保证吃透合同,精确理解合同,仍然要仔细阅读。

二、合同期限

合同期限主要涉及合同生效日期与终止日期。

合同的生效问题我国合同法有明确规定。《合同法》第44条规定:依法成立的合同,自成立时生效。这里的成立是指双方通过协商一致完成签字。有些合同在正文的条款中规定了合同的开始时间,这与我国《合同法》第46条规定是一致的,即当事人对合同的效力可以约定期限。

合同终止是需要特别注意的问题。由于油服业务尤其是钻井服务面临诸多风险,有来自地层的原因,有来自操作的失误,有来自恶劣天气的破坏,也有来自设备的故障,甚至来自战争冲突。无论是什么原因,都会造成施工中断、工期延误、井喷等污染事件甚至会对整个社会造成很大影响,这都是双方不愿意看到的事情,有些也会使项目失去意义或导致项目亏损,此时,一方或双方都会想到终止合同。

三、钻机检验

油服行业尽管可以细分为几十个分支行业,但钻井业务绝对是不可或缺,正是由于钻井业务处于油服行业的基础层面,钻机在一定程度上也是油服行业的基础设备,因此,业主非常重视钻机检验环节也就不足为奇,很多合同对钻机检验环节有着丰富的规定。

1.钻机验收检测,是指开钻前业主依据合同工作范围对钻机的检测,目的是为保证钻机运转正常操控得当,并检验承包商人员是否合格,是否按规定程序恰当操作。业主对于检测到的所有问题将记录在案,承包商应及时整改,并应在开钻前达到业主的满意。

此处应注意,对于业主提出的整改要求,作为承包商,我们要想到,完成整改后,业主应及时验收,以避免由于业主拖延验收,耽误开钻时间,影响工期。

2.作业期间的验收。业主将根据合同相应条款在作业期间开展钻机检测,主要是针对安全、机械、电力系统,以确保工作安全高质量运行。

当然承包商要根据合同要求配合业主,并及时整改业主发现的问题。这时如果业主发现问题,将对承包商非常不利,有些合同规定此时发现问题,如果对于大包项目,承包商无权要求额外工作时间;如果对于日费项目,承包商整改期间将适用零日费;但此期间的检测费用由业主承担。

四、责任与赔偿

这部分内容非常重要,而且突出体现了英文合同的专业性语言。责任与赔偿条款不仅在形式上专业,内容上也很专业,集中了作业中的主要技术风险,如钻井作业中的井下工具、井喷、污染及油层损坏等。这部分内容之所以重要,不仅在于其专业性,这部分内容所涉及的事件,比如事故亡人、工具损坏甚至井喷事故,都足以使项目一亏到底甚至酿成像2010年BP墨西哥湾漏油那样的全球瞩目事件,当然也有巨额亏损与赔偿。

1. 人员与财产。

承包商将免除业主所有责任,包括法律成本,与执行合同有关的下列事件:承包商及其人员的财产损失,承包商人员伤病死亡,承包商过失造成的任何第三方人员伤亡与财产损失。同样,业主也将免除承包商任何责任,包括法律成本,与合同有关的下列事件:业主财产及业主人员财产的损失,业主人员伤亡,业主过失所造成的任何第三方人员伤亡和财产损失。

2. 井下工具。

在日费作业过程中,如果承包商井下工具发生损坏,而且由承包商之外的原因导致,业主应当赔偿其损失,当然要扣除正常磨损。由于业主过失所造成的承包商设备的损失,业主将负责赔偿,扣除折旧,业主将自行选择赔偿维修或替换二者中的较小额度费用;但每次事故赔偿额不超过上限。

3. 业主物品。

承包商应采取必要措施确保其保管的业主设备免受损害,对于由其过失所导致业主设备的损害,承包商将负赔偿责任,但要扣除折旧,而且每次事故赔偿额最多不超过上限。

4. 污染责任。

承包商对于其执行合同过程中产生的与任何污染有关的损害、赔偿、责任将豁免业主,污染漏油、漏气以及管线破坏等多种形式。相应的,业主的污染责任与承包商相对称。

5. 油层损害。

业主对于作业过程中油层或其他矿藏的损害导致的赔偿、责任将豁免承包商。

6. 井喷控制。

井喷可谓是钻井服务中甚至是整个油田服务中最大的风险,后果不堪设想,损失不计其数,在合同中必须要有明确约定。如果在大包作业中发生井喷,包括但不限于由承包商过失导致,或在日费作业中全部或部分由承包商过失导致,承包商将对此负责并免除业主赔偿责任,而且应当承担封井或其他控制措施,但每次井喷事故的赔偿额不超过上限,这体现了大包服务的高风险特点。

如果在日费作业中发生井喷事故,业主将承担责任并对承包商豁免,而且承担封井或其他控制措施的全部费用。但对于全部或部分由于承包商过失导致,业主将只负责超过承包商上限部分赔偿。

当今世界环境保护意识早已深入人心,尤其在石油行业,资源国对环境的重视大大超过了对利益的重视,业界早已形成了共识,重视环保是公认的准则。这一观念需要中资企业理解并接受,这也要求我们在投标以及预算过程中事先纳入环保理念与成本,在合同谈判中明确污染和井喷等与环保相关事件的处理思路。

五、知识产权

对知识产权的重视早已成为国际贸易的显著特点,在油服业务中也不例外,合同中一般规定,任何一方无权使用另一方提供的知识产权,包括商标权、专利权、商业秘密等,无论直接还是间接,用于执行合同之外的目的。

对于一方在合同开始后或在合同之外产生或改进的知识产权,完全使用其自身的数据、设备等条件,由其享有该项权利。

一方要免除另一方的责任,针对其在执行合同过程中由于违反知识产权所导致的损失,除了这种违反是由于另一方提供的信息或指导。

六、适用法律及争议解决

国际贸易本就发生在不同国家之间,很多时候双方的文化理念与风俗习惯甚至宗教信仰千差万别,出现争议纠纷无可避免,所以纠纷解决机制也有重要意义。合同中一般规定,承包商要遵守项目所在国法律法规,依法获取当地法律要求执行项目所必需的各种许可,并自行承担有关费用。承包商在执行合同过程中要遵守当地关于反腐败以及反洗钱法律,除此之外,还要遵守英国以及美国的反腐败和反洗钱法律。

很多合同都有类似说法,双方应本着诚实信用原则通过友好协商解决争议,如果协商不成,要向英国或美国法庭提起诉讼,有的合同也以欧美商业中心的仲裁庭作为最终争议解决途径。

从以上合同内容不难看出,国际贸易的话语权还掌握在行业巨头手中,发达国家仍为国际贸易的强势群体,中资公司要想在国际贸易舞台上获得一席之地还有很长的路要走,在合同与商务规则把握方面肯定还需要下更多功夫。

摘要:近几年,中资油田服务企业不断进入国际市场,与国际接轨的层次有了前所未有的高度。众所周知,国际贸易最显著的特点在于合同的签订和履行,而这在油田服务领域更是显露无遗,所以在油田服务项目中,对于合同的理解与把握对于项目有至关重要的作用。

英文国际货物买卖合同写法研究 篇3

一、合同的基本格式及其语言特点

国际货物买卖合同的制作,买卖双方均可负责。买方制作合同称为购货合同(Purchase Contract);卖方制作的合同称为销售合同(Sales Contract)。通常买卖双方都备有事先制作好的空白格式合同,或称作标准合同(Standard Form Contract)。由于合同的性质及实际情况的差异,合同格式局部细节各种各样。但是一般而言,合同格式由约首、正文和结尾三部分构成。

1. 约首

约首即指合同的开头。它一般载明合同的名称和编号、订约时间与地点、订约双方的名称与法定地以及电报挂号、电传、电话等事项。此外,有的合同还包括有较长的序言,说明订约的目的和基本原则。当然,约首所载明内容的多寡遵循双方当事人意思表示一致的原则。从约首所载明的内容看,由于它的法律作用在于确定合同的效力范围和有效条件,所以也称其为效力部分(Effect Part)。例:

Contract

Contract No. _____Cable Add. _____Telex _____Fax _____Signed at _____

This contract, made and entered into this _______ day of _______, 19 _______, by and between _______, a corporation organized and existing under the law of _______, having its principal office at _______ (hereafter called “A”) and _______, a corporation organized and existing under the law of _______, having its principal office at _______.

此实例内容规定合理,序言阐述严谨明确,产生了简洁扼要、重点突出的效果。

2.正文

正文即指构成合同主要内容或中心内容的条款部分。由于它反映了买卖双方在交易中的权利和义务关系,所以称其为权利和义务部分(Rights and Obligation Part)。正文的格式比较简单,一般即将买卖双方商订的条款按顺序排列。例如紧接上述英文约首后正文条款的排法:

1. COMMODITY: ……

2. QUALITY: ……

3. 结尾

结尾和约首一样,也属于合同的效力部分。它主要载明合同生效日期、合同使用文字、文本、份数和买卖双方当事人的签字。结尾的格式一般在正文条款之后有一段结尾语,然后再由买卖双方当事人签字并署名日期。例:

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, this contract is made in two originals in both Chinese and English, each language being legally of equal effect. Each party keeps one original of the two after the signing of the contract.

The Buyers _______ The Sellers _______

Date _____________Date ____________

有些合同结尾不包括结尾语,只要求买卖双方签字及注明日期即可。

从上述实例中的约首和结尾的语言分析来看,专门法律术语的运用并不多,但是选词用词很准确、很规范。特别是agree一词的运用颇具典型性。该词不仅体现其本身的表面意义,更重要的是它从法律这个更深层次揭示了买卖双方意思表示一致原则在合同中的应用。同时,主体英语或法律公文的专门词语得到较多的运用。例如:hereafter, hereby, hereinafter, herein, hereof, hereto, whereas, whereby, whereof等主体形式加介词构成的副词。这些公文特有的规范书面语突出地体现了合同严肃庄重的文体风格。

二、合同正文英文条款订立的原则

正文作为合同的主体或本文,其作用在于确立买卖双方的权利和义务关系,所以,条款的内容和多寡是双方当事人商谈的中心。由于正文条款内容复杂,涉及法律问题也很多,所以订立条款必须明确、具体、切合实际,否则很容易引起争议或损害赔偿。

1.必须载明条款的必备内容

每项条款都有必备的内容要求。任何不具体、不明确、不切实际的条款都会使买卖双方权利与义务界限不清,从而产生争议。据此,一定要载明条款的必备内容。例如SHIPMENT条款主要规定有交货时间、装运港和目的港、转船以及分批装运等内容:

SHIPMENT: Shipment during May from London to Shanghai. The Sellers shall advise the Buyers, 45 days before shipment month. Partial shipments and transshipments allowed.

通过以上实例不难看出条款内容的重要性。每项条款都会在不同方面涉及许多复杂法律问题,所以买卖双方必须在签订合同之前对合同条款的内容认真仔细地进行磋商,把条款规定得适当、明确和切实可行,以免日后引起不必要的争议。

2.条款的表示方式

与条款内容密切相关的问题就是条款的表示方式。许多条款的表示方式都有明确规定。如不遵守就会和条款内容一样造成严重的法律后果。请看下面一项仲裁条款:

ARBITRATION: All disputes arising from the execution of, or in connection with this contract, shall be settled amicably through negotiation. In case no settlement can be reached through negotiation, the case shall then be submitted to _______ in accordance with its arbitral rules of procedure. The arbitral award is final and binding upon both parties.

该仲裁条款规定了三种常用的方式:一是规定在我国仲裁的条款;二是规定在被诉方所在国仲裁的条款;三是规定在第三国仲裁的条款。该实例中的空格正是为说明这三种方式的变化而留的。如果条款内容条理不清,合同不仅无法履行,而且引起严重的法律后果。

总之,条款内容及其表示方式紧密相关的。但是,具体采用什么样的条款表示方式则要依据商品的特点或类别、合同的性质和买卖双方意思表示一致的原则下而定。以上仅是订立条款时的规律性及原则性说明。在实践中,所订立的任何条款都应从内容和形式两方面进行认真磋商,以免日后产生争议。

3.常用的专门术语及计量单位名称

国际货物买卖合同的性质决定了正文条款涉及到的专门术语五花八门,种类繁多,延伸到许多领域内。合同条款中专门术语的运用是交易的需要,合同自签订之日至履行完,要涉及某特定商品、价格、运输、保险、商检、银行金融等一系列领域各自的专门术语,因此,熟悉常用的专门术语仍是起草合同条款的一个必备条件。

国际贸易术语是指用一个含有简短概念的外文缩写来表示商品价格的构成、买卖双方各自应负担的责任、费用和风险以及货物所有权转移的界限。由于它表明了商品价格的构成,所以在外贸业务中,往往把贸易术语称价格术语(Price Terms)。价格术语涉及交货地点、运输及其费用、保险及其保险费、进出口许可证申领和进出口关税的交纳四个方面的问题,按交货地点的不同可分为出口国内陆交货、出口国装运港交货、进口国目的地交货三大类价格术语。其中以第二类出口国装运港交货中的FOB,C&F,CIF三种价格术语在国际上使用最为普遍。如果对此心中无数,不了解这些术语丰富的法律内涵以及实务中的运作程序,后果会十分严重。

条款作为合同的正文是合同的精华部分,因为它用有限的条文浓缩了无限的内容。对国际货物买卖合同的研究,特别是对正文条款的研究应该是无止境而富有实际意义的工作。

外销合同英文 篇4

第一类:“here”+介系词

第一类以“here”开头,后面再加上一个介系词的传统用字,在英文合约里经常可以看到,大概包括“hereunder”、“hereto”、 “hereby”、“hereof”、“herein”等等这几个字。依照作者的看法,这是比较容易处理的一类,因为只要读者记住一个简单的原则:「“here”+介系词 = 介系词+“this agreement”」,就几乎可以解读所有的第一类用语了。以下来详细看看这个原则的运用情形。(注意:“hereinafter”在定义条款中用来表示「以下简称……」的意思,虽然也用“here”为前缀,但与这里所说的传统用语无关,详见第贰编之伍「定义条款」。)

—— “hereunder” = “under this agreement”

“hereunder”用“under this agreement”代替后,就很清楚地可以了解是「在本合约内」、「依据本合约」的意思。常和这个字结合的概念有如下几个例子:

举例 解读后等于 中文翻译

obligations obligations under this 本合约内的

hereunder agreement 义务

rights granted rights granted under this 依本合约所

hereunder agreement 赋予的权利

payment due payment due under 依本合约应

hereunder this agreement 付的价款

notice required notice required to be 依本合约所

to be given given under this 应给予的通知

hereunder agreement

payment amount “due ”

“due ”是「债务到期」的意思,详见第贰编之柒「交易条件」

notice

—— “hereto” = “to this agreement”

因为英文文法里对介系词“to”有某些一定的用法(例如动词“attach”后面接受词时,就要用介系词“to”),所以这个字最常出现在英文合约里的状况,就是和「当事人」以及「附件」两个概念相结合:

举例: 解读后等于: 中文翻译:

both parties hereto both parties to this agreement 本合约之当事人双方

items specified in attachment & i hereto items specified in attachment i to this agreement 本合约之附件i所列之各项

& attachment

详见第2编之16「合约的附件」。

—— “hereby” = “by this agreement”

“hereby”中文大概可以说是「在此」、「依此」的意思,表示当事人借着这个合约,要宣示某种具有法律上效力的「意思表示」,例如保证、同意、放弃权利等等。

举例: 解读后等于: 中文翻译:

the company hereby covenants and warrants & that…… by this agreement the company covenants and warrants that…… 公司在此保证……

both parties hereby agree that…… by this agreement both parties agree that…… 双方当事人在此同意……

the seller hereby waives & the right of…… by this agreement the seller waives the right of…… 卖方在此放弃……的权利

& covenants and warrants

详见第贰编之捌「保证条款与承诺条款」。

& waive

详见第2编之15「杂项条款」中的「弃权解释限制条款」。

—— “hereof” = “of this agreement”; “herein” = “in this agreement”

“hereof” 和“herein”与前面介绍过的“hereunder”、“hereto”以及“hereby”比较起来,可能的用法与场合较广泛,所连接的概念也比较没有固定性,同时在很多情况下“hereof”和“herein”相互代换使用,意思上并不会有很大的差别。由于“of”和“in”是比较普通易懂的介系词,只要读者继续掌握前面一贯的原则,应该不会有什么理解上的困难。

举例: 解读后等于: 中文翻译:

to file a suit in the court agreed to& herein to file a suit in the court agreed to in this agreement 向当事人于本合约中合意管辖的提起诉讼

to follow the terms and conditions & herein to follow the terms and conditions in this agreement 遵守本合约所规定的条件

to take effect on the date hereof to take effect on the date of this agreement 于本合约之日期生效

the headings of the sections hereof the headings of the sections of this agreement 本合约各条款之标题

& the court agreed to

详见第贰编之拾伍「杂项条款」中的「合意管辖」条款。

& terms and conditions

详见第2编之7「交易条件」。

第二类:“thereof, thereto……”与“the same”

以“there”为前缀再加上介系词,例如“thereof”、“thereto”等用语,以及“the same”这一类的用语比较不容易处理,因为上面介绍的原则无法直接套用,而必须靠读者自己依照合约的上下文来判断。我们来看看下面两个例子:

例一: no change in or modification of this agreement shall be valid unless the same is made in writing. (本约之修改需以书面为之,始生效力。)

例二: this agreement is written in the english language. in case of any discrepancy between the english version and any translation thereof, the english text shall govern. (本约以英文订定,与其它语言之翻译版本解释上生差异者,以英文为主。)

读者从上下文应该可以推敲出来,例一里的“the same”指的是「合约的修改」,也就是前面的“change in or modification of this agreement”这些字句,合约撰写人为了避免文句重复造成阅读负担与篇幅冗长,于是就简单用“the same”两个字来代替。(换句话说,如果不用“the same”的方法,整句话应该是:“no change in or modification of this agreement shall be valid unless the change in or modification of this agreement is made in writing.”)

至于例二里的“thereof”,也可以从上下文看出来是代替 “of the english version” 这几个字。这和第一类的“hereof”其实有类似的解读方法,但是“hereof”的“here”通常都可以用“this agreement”来代替,但是 “thereof” 的 “there” 要用什么代替,就没有一定的规则了,在例二“there”代替的是“the english version”,在别的地方却又代替其它的概念,这就是第二类用语为什么较第一类来得困难的原因了。

补偿贸易合同英文 篇5

COMPENSATION TRADE CONTRACT

Contract No.: __________

Date of Signing: _________

Place of Signing: _______

The two Parties:

Party A: ________________________________

Address: ________________________________

Tel:_________________Fax: _______________

E-mail: _________________________________

Party B: ________________________________Address: ____________________________ ___

Tel:_________________Fax: _______________E-mail:_________________________________

WITNESSETH

Whereas Party B has machines and equipment, which are now used in Party Bs manufacturing of _______, and is willing to sell to Party A the machines and equipment;and

Whereas Party B agrees to buy the products, _______, made by Party

A using the machines and equipment Party B supplies, in compensation for the price of the machines and equipment, and

Whereas Party A agrees to purchase from Party B the machines and equipment, and

Whereas Party A agrees to sell to Party B the products, _______, in compensation of the price of Party Bs machines and equipment;Now therefore, in consideration of the premises and covenants described hereinafter, Party A and Party B agree a follows:

ARTICLE 1 TRANSACTIONS

A)Party B agrees to provide Party A with _________ machines to be used in production, their auxiliary machinery, accessories and spare parts and a variety of measuring and testing instruments required in the process of production.The details of the models, names, specifications, quantity, prices, packing, delivery , etc.thereof shall be specified in an additional equipment-import agreement to be concluded by and between both parties which shall serve as an component part hereof.B)The total value of the machines, auxiliary equipment, etc.supplied by part B shall be paid off by Party A with part of the manufactures made therewith and/or other goods, or with(designate name)products made in(Name of the plant)if both parties agree.The specific name(s), quantity, price, delivery, etc.of the goods granted as the make-up payment shall be decided in an additional compensation goods-supply agreement made by the parties which shall serve as a component part hereof.The

equipment-import agreement and compensation-goods-supply agreement aforesaid may be merged as one called sales agreement on compensation trade(See appendix).ARTICLE 2 PAYMENT

Both parties agree to open letters of credit in favor of each other, i.e.Party A will open, at regular intervals, long term letters of credit in favor of Party B to pay by installments the total cost of the machines and auxiliary equipment provided by Party B;whereas Party B will open sight letters of credit in favor of Party A to pay the products to be delivered by Party A.Party A shall pay for the total cost of the machines and auxiliary equipment with the money remitted by Party B as

reimbursement for the products to be delivered by Party A.In case the sum to be paid by Party B fails to cover the value of the long-term letters of credit opened by Party A, the difference shall be made up by Party B by paying that much to Party A in advance, before the long-term letters of credit are due, to enable Party A to reimburse on time the long-term letters of credit it opens.The payment of the long-term letters of credit opened by Party A is based on Party Bs opening a sight letter of credit under the provisions and on its paying the advance required herein.Thus, Party B warrants, guarantees and covenants that it will open the letters of credit and pay the advance as provided herein.ARTICLE 3 REIMBURSEMENT

Party A shall reimburse Party B for all the machines and auxiliary equipment supplied by Party B by delivering goods to Party B on a monthly basis and the reimbursement will last for___ year(s)and ____months(s).The reimbursement shall start approximately ____month(s)after the first delivery of the machines and, in principle, the money to be reimbursed per month shall be ______percent of the total amount due for the machines.With a ______month(s)notice to Party B, Party A may reimburse Party B in advance.Within the reimbursement period, Party B shall, under the provisions of the additional sales agreement aforesaid, open, sight, irrevocable, divisible and assignable letters of credit, covering the full amount, in favor of Party A.ARTICLE 4 STANDARD MONEY AND PRICE STANDARD

The standard money for this transaction is(Name of currency).All the machinery, auxiliary equipment and measuring and testing instruments , etc.provided by Party B shall be valued with(Name of currency), while the goods provided by Party A to Party B as reimbursement shall be valued with the basis price(Name of currency)of the same goods exported by Party

A at the time when this agreement is entered into, and the total price(Name of currency)shall be changed into that of(Name of currency)in accordance with the exchange rate then.ARTICLE 5 INTREREST

Party A shall pay the interest on its long-term letters of credit and the interest on the cash in advance rendered by Party B.The annual interest rate is agreed upon at_____%.ARTICLE 6 TECHNICAL SERVICE

The machinery, after arrival at its destination, shall be installed by Party A, Party B shall dispatch its technicians to render spot instructions and other necessary technical assistance during the

installation of the main machines, as may be requested by Party A in case of necessity, Party B shall be liable for the losses resulted in such a course of installation from technical default on its part.ARTICLE 7 ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT

During the enforcement of this agreement, if it is found necessary that, in addition to the machinery and equipment listed herein, some new accessories or measuring and testing instruments are needed for

completion of the project,(an)additional order(s)may be made through negotiation by the parties.The new items thus added shall be incorporated in agreement.ARTICLE 8 INSURANCE

The machinery and auxiliary equipment, after shipment, shall be insured by Party B.The title thereof shall be transferred into Party B after full payment therefore is made by Party B, thereafter, the

unforeseeable losses concerning the machinery and auxiliary equipment shall be indemnified for first by the Insurance Company to Party B, then Party B shall remit for Party A, in proportion, the sum already paid by Party A for the machinery or equipment involved in the contingency.ARTICLE 9 LIABILITY FOR BREACH OF AGREEMENT

Party B shall , if it fails to comply with this agreement to make purchase of the goods delivered by Party A as reimbursement, or Party A shall, if it fails to comply with this agreement to deliver the goods it

is due to provide, be deemed liable for a breach of agreement and shall compensate the non-breaching Party for the loss caused thereupon and shall pay the non-breaching Party a fine accounting for % of the total value of the goods in question.ARTICLE 10 PERFORMANCE GUARANTEE

To guarantee the implementation of this agreement, each party shall submit to the other party a letter of guarantee issued by its bank respectively.The guaranteeing bank of Party A is ______ Bank, ______, while the guaranteeing bank of Party B is ______Bank, ______.ARTICLE 11 AMENDMNET

The modification of this agreement in particular cases shall be agreed upon by both parties through negotiations.ARTICLE 12 Force Majeure

In case that one or both parties are impossible to perform the duties provided herein on account of force majeure, the party(or parties)in contingency shall inform the other party(or each other)of the case immediately and may, provided the case is duly verified by the competent authorities, delay in performance of or not perform the relevant duties hereunder the be partially or entirely exempted from the liability for breach of this agreement.ARTICLE 13 ARBITRATION

Any dispute arising from or in connection with this Contract shall be submitted to China International Economic and Trade Arbitration Commission,Shenzhen Commission for arbitration which shall be conducted in accordance with the Commissions arbitration rules in effect at the time of applying for arbitration.The arbitral award is final and binding upon both parties and the applicable law is the material law of P.R.C.Notwithstanding any reference to arbitration, both Parties shall continue to perform their respective obligations under the Contract unless otherwise agreed.ARTICLE 14 LANGUAGE AND EFFECTIVE DATE

There are two originals hereof made respectively in Chinese and ______, both of which are of the same effect.This agreement shall come into effect on the date when both parties set their hands hereunto and remain effective for_____ years.Upon its expiration, the parties may, if they choose, extend the term hereof for _____years or execute a new cooperation agreement, provided they apply to and approved by the Authority agencies concerned.Party AParty B

英文合同文档 篇6

maturing no more than one(1)year after its creation and having the highest rating from either Standard & Poor’s Corporation or Moody’s Investors Service, Inc., and(c)Bank’s or Salomon Smith Barney’s certificates of deposit issued maturing no more than one(1)year after issue.13.10“Change in Control” means any change, whether by a single transaction or a series of transactions, in the Person or Persons who control sufficient voting rights accorded to the owners of Borrower’s stock(directly or indirectly, whether by stock ownership, contract, or otherwise)to direct the management of Borrower;provided, however, this provision shall not be violated by any sale of the stock(and related voting rights)of Borrower by Borrower through the New York Stock Exchange, the American Stock Exchange, NASDAQ or other public securities markets in which stocks of companies are regularly traded in the United States.13.11“Closing Date” is the date of this Agreement.13.12“Code” is the Uniform Commercial Code in effect in any applicable jurisdiction.13.13“Collateral” is the property described on

13.14“Committed Revolving Line” is an Advance or Advances of up to the aggregate principal amount of $6,000,000 at any time.13.15“Compliance Certificate” is a Compliance Certificate signed by a Responsible

13.16“Contingent Obligation” is, for any Person, any direct or indirect liability,contingent or not, of that Person for(a)any indebtedness, lease, dividend, letter of credit or other obligation of another such as an obligation directly or indirectly guaranteed, endorsed, co-made, discounted or sold with recourse by that Person, or for which that Person is directly or indirectly liable;(b)any obligations for undrawn letters of credit for the account of that Person;and(c)all obligations from any interest rate, currency or commodity swap agreement, interest rate cap or collar agreement, or other agreement or arrangement designated to protect a Person against fluctuation in interest rates, currency exchange rates or commodity prices;but “Contingent Obligation” does not include endorsements in the ordinary course of business.The amount of a Contingent Obligation is the stated or determined amount of the primary obligation for which the Contingent Obligation is made or, if not determinable, the maximum reasonably anticipated liability for it determined by the Person in good faith;but the amount may not exceed the maximum of the obligations under the guarantee or other support arrangement.13.17“Control Agreement” is an account control agreement, in form and substance

satisfactory to Bank, executed and delivered by Borrower, Bank, and all applicable depositary institutions, with respect to Borrower’s deposit or operating accounts, or applicable securities intermediaries, with respect to Borrower’s securities accounts.13.18“Corporate Borrowing Resolutions” means those resolutions of Borrower’s Board of Directors executed and delivered by Borrower to Bank in accordance with Section 3.1(e)approving the Loan Documents and the transactions contemplated thereby, together with a certificate of incumbency signed by Borrower’s Secretary or a Responsible Officer.19

13.19“Copyrights” are all copyright rights, applications or registrations and like

protections in each work or authorship or derivative work, whether published or not(whether or not it is a trade secret)now or later existing, created, acquired or held.13.20“Current Liabilities” are the aggregate amount of Borrower’s Total Liabilities which mature within one(1)year.13.21“Deferred Revenue” is all amounts received in advance of performance and not yet recognized as revenue.13.22“Deposit Accounts” means all present and future “deposit accounts” as defined in the Code in effect on the date hereof with such additions to such term as may hereafter be made, and includes without limitation all general and special bank accounts, demand accounts, checking accounts, savings accounts and certificates of deposit, whether maintained with Bank or other institutions.13.23“Dollars”, “dollars” and “$” shall mean lawful money of the United States of

America.13.24“Eligible Domestic Accounts” are Accounts in the ordinary course of Borrower’s business that meet all Borrower’s representations and warranties in Section 5, and which contain selling terms and conditions acceptable to Bank;provided, that Bank may change eligibility standards by giving Borrower notice thereof.Unless Bank agrees otherwise in writing, Eligible Domestic Accounts will not include:

(a)Accounts against which Bank does not have a perfected, first priority security

interest;

(b)Accounts that the account debtor has not paid within 90 days of invoice date;

(c)Accounts for an account debtor, 35% or more of whose Accounts have not

been paid within 90 days of invoice date;

(d)Accounts with credit balances over 90 days from invoice date;

(e)Accounts for an account debtor, including Affiliates, whose total obligations

to Borrower exceed 40% of all Accounts, for the amounts that exceed that percentage,unless the Bank approves otherwise in writing;

(f)Accounts for which the account debtor does not have its principal place of

business in the United States except for Eligible Foreign Accounts and Related Party

Accounts;

(g)Accounts for which the account debtor is a federal, state or local government

entity or any department, agency, or instrumentality and against which Bank’s security interest has not been perfected under the Assignment of Claims Act;

(h)Accounts for which Borrower owes the account debtor, but only up to the

amount owed(sometimes called “contra” accounts, accounts payable, customer

deposits or credit accounts);

(i)Accounts for demonstration or promotional equipment, or in which goods are

consigned, sales guaranteed, sale or return, sale on approval, bill and hold, or other

terms if account debtor’s payment may be conditional;

(j)Accounts for which the account debtor is Borrower’s Affiliate, officer,employee, or agent;

(k)Accounts in which the account debtor disputes liability or makes any claim

and Bank believes there may be a basis for dispute(but only up to the disputed or

claimed amount), or if the Account Debtor is subject to an Insolvency Proceeding, or

becomes insolvent, or goes out of business;

(l)Accounts for which Bank determines collection to be doubtful, or the

Account holder to be an unacceptable business risk;or

(m)The amount received on behalf of any Account constituting Deferred

Revenue.13.25“Eligible Foreign Accounts” are Accounts in the ordinary course of Borrower’s business, the account debtors of which do not have their principal place of business in the United States, but only to the extent that such foreign Accounts meet all of Borrower’s representations and warranties in Section 5, contain selling terms and conditions acceptable to Bank in its sole discretion, and the account debtor is Sony, Toshiba, Pioneer, and Philips.Notwithstanding the foregoing, Bank may change eligibility standards by giving Borrower notice thereof, and the allowance of other Eligible Foreign Accounts shall be approved by Bank in its sole discretion on a case-by-case basis.13.26“Equipment” is all present and future machinery, equipment, tenant improvements, furniture, fixtures, vehicles, tools, parts and attachments in which Borrower has any interest.13.27“ERISA” is the Employment Retirement Income Security Act of 1974, and its

regulations.13.28“GAAP” is generally accepted accounting principles.13.29“General Intangibles” means all present and future “general intangibles” as defined in the Code in effect on the date hereof with such additions to such term as may hereafter be made, and includes without limitation all payment intangibles, royalties, contract rights, goodwill, franchise agreements, purchase orders, customer lists, route lists, telephone numbers, domain names, claims, income tax refunds, security and other deposits, options to purchase or sell real or personal property, rights in all litigation presently or hereafter pending(whether in contract, tort or otherwise), insurance policies(including without limitation key man, property

damage, and business interruption insurance), payments of insurance and rights to payment of any kind.13.30“Guarantor” is any present or future guarantor of the Obligations.13.31“Indebtedness” is(a)indebtedness for borrowed money or the deferred price of property or services, such as reimbursement and other obligations for surety bonds and letters of credit,(b)obligations evidenced by notes, bonds, debentures or similar instruments,(c)capital lease obligations, and(d)Contingent Obligations.13.32“Indenture” means that certain Indenture from Borrower, as issuer, to The Bank of New York, as trustee, dated as of August 28, 2001.13.33“Insolvency Proceeding” are proceedings by or against any Person under the United States Bankruptcy Code, or any other bankruptcy or insolvency law, including assignments for the benefit of creditors, compositions, extensions generally with its creditors, or proceedings seeking reorganization, arrangement, or other relief.13.34“Intellectual Property” is:

(a)Copyrights, Trademarks, Patents, and Mask Works including amendments,renewals, extensions, and all licenses or other rights to use and all license fees and

royalties from the use;

(b)Any trade secrets and any intellectual property rights in computer software

and computer software products now or later existing, created, acquired or held;and

(c)All design rights which may be available to Borrower now or later created,acquired or held.13.35“Interest Determination Date” shall mean the date of delivery of a Pledged CD and the date of the commencement of each Interest Period.13.36“Interest Period” shall mean the period commencing initially on the date of delivery of a Pledged CD and thereafter on the date immediately following the end of any such initial period or subsequent period, and ending on the last Business Day of the month ending

approximately 7, 30, 60, 90, 180, 270 or 360 days thereafter.13.37“Inventory” is present and future inventory in which Borrower has any interest, including merchandise, raw materials, parts, supplies, packing and shipping materials, work in process and finished products intended for sale or lease or to be furnished under a contract of service, of every kind and description now or later owned by or in the custody or possession, actual or constructive, of Borrower, including inventory temporarily out of its custody or possession or in transit and including returns on any accounts or other proceeds(including insurance proceeds)from the sale or disposition of any of the foregoing and any documents of title.22

13.38“Investment” is any beneficial ownership of(including stock, partnership interest or other securities)any Person, or any loan, advance or capital contribution to any Person.13.39“Investment Property” means all present and future investment property, securities, stocks, bonds, debentures, debt securities, partnership interests, limited liability company interests, options, security entitlements, securities accounts, commodity contracts, commodity accounts, and all financial assets held in any securities account or otherwise, wherever located, and all other securities of every kind, whether certificated or uncertificated.13.40“Lien” is a mortgage, lien, deed of trust, charge, pledge, security interest or other encumbrance.13.41“Loan Documents” are, collectively, this Agreement, including the Borrower Profile, the Negative Pledge Agreement, any note, or notes or guaranties executed by Borrower or Guarantor in connection with this Agreement, any account control agreements in connection with this

外销合同英文 篇7

关键词:英文合同,关联原则,法律风险

Sperber和Wilson在1986年提出交际的最大关联原则。他们认为参加会话的人所说的话都和整个话题以及对方前面所说的话相关联。在语言交际中, 说话人要表明他们所提供的信息有某种关联, 这种关联使人们对说话人的意图进行合理的推导, 达到对话语的正确理解, 那么在书面交际中, 说话人也应让听话人对所表达的文字做出合理的推导, 以达到正确理解。“任何一个明示交际行为, 必须保证自身的最大关联”[1]。即人类认知事物时总是遵循着关联原则。

由于英文合同大都采用英美国家的合同结构、语言和形式, 在中西语言和文化差异的大背景下, 英文合同中从词汇到句法再到语篇都有可能存在着风险, 这些风险在很大程度上就不符合前述的关联原则, 从而给合同当事人带来风险。所以, 有必要借助于语言交际的关联理论来指导英语合同条款的表达, 以探索达到最佳关联, 避免合同各方的理解误差而产生的纠纷, 从而达到避免风险, 保护交易的目的。

一、英文合同条款的关联原则

Sperber和Wilson认为话语的理解并不是简单的语言解码 (decoding) , 要理解具有多种意义的话语, 说话人说出的话更具有明示性, 自然还要借助语境。在英语合同的表达中, 如条款的关联性强, 读者就会作出合理的推导, 正确理解;反之, 读者就会很费力, 或根据自己的理解来解释条款而导致纠纷。

英语合同与法律条文的历史传统有关, 因此, 条款中的句子远远超出英语句子的平均长度 (17个词) 。“根据法律文件的特征, 翻译上要求用词精当、要言重复、脉络清晰、简洁精练”[2]。有时一个段落由一个长句组成, 结构复杂, 包含较多的修饰语和从句。但如果条款的各层次间有很强的关联性, 并有一些信号引导读者分析理解句子的层次之间的关系, 那么, 再复杂的条款也能被明确无误地理解, 以达到书面交际的成功——读者准确地理解作者意欲表达的信息。

由于合同的结构和使用的语言比较固定, 因此合同中每一部分的法律风险位于何处, 也都相对比较固定, 合同条款的关联性与风险之间的关系就是有规律可循的, 这就为我们分析英文合同提供了可能。总之, 合同用语的关联性与合同的风险之间存在必然联系, 这个联系也因为英文合同条款的相对固定性而可以识别和掌握, 从而为规避风险找到一条捷径。以下笔者从英文合同的词汇、句法和语篇三个层面, 举例说明英文合同条款关联性对合同风险的影响, 并分析如何完善条款表达一规避这些风险。

二、词汇关联性与风险

在词汇层面 (lexical level) , 由于法律英语具有专门性和精确性的特点, 使得英文合同无论是在词的涵义方面, 还是词的精确选用与指代方面都与普通英文表达有所不同。以下几个方面的技巧的掌握将能够有效避免风险。

(一) 注意词的语义转变

中国人从小开始学习英文, 但主要学习的还是英文的普通用法, 而对于合同中的一些有普通词转化为专业词汇时解除较少, 往往无所适从。比如“shall”, 英语课堂上往往只强调其“情态动词表将来”的动作, 而很少强调其“助动词表功能”的含义, 这后一种用法在合同英语中就是一个“普通词语”, 表示“……有义务做某事”之意, 比如:

合同任何一方均不得将本合同的全部或任何部分, 或本合同中规定的或根据本合同所具有的任何利益或权益转让给他人。

这类词语还有很多, 比如“advise”, 在日常用于中表示“建议”, 在英文合同中常表示“通知” (notify) ;“save”在普通英文中表示“挽救”、“节约”等意思, 在英文合同中常常与“except”同意。诸如此类的词语, 在用于合同中, 意义有所转变。解决此类由于词汇而产生的合同风险的关键就在于将“普通词语”转化为“法言法语”, 这就需要通过大量阅读英文合同, 积累更多变化了意义的词语的含义, 从而提高表达的精确性, 避免应理解不当而造成交易风险。

(二) 词的精确选用和表达

根据关联论, 对话语的理解是由语境效果和所付出的理解努力来决定的。如果关联性越大, 理解时所付出的努力就越小。在起草或翻译英语合同条款时, 词语的选择也会影响到读者信息加工所需付出的努力, 人们在交际中会将接收的新信息与自己已知的旧信息加以比较得出结论, 如果能推导出一个以上的意义, 那就产生歧义。

本例中的“ship”在贸易中是个多义词, 它可以指货物离开了卖方的仓库, 但所有权仍然属于卖方;也可以指卖方已将货物交给了陆运承运人 (如铁路运输公司等) ;或指货已上船。这时, 卖方的风险已经转移。在起草或翻译合同条款时应根据合同表达的特点, 明示作者的意图, 将具有“装运”意义的“ship”换成“deliver” (交货) 并加上一定的修饰语在意义上加以限制, 这样虽然条款的表达上复杂了, 但是理解却容易了, 并能达到无歧义。不妨将例2修改为:Title to the Goods will pass to the Buyer at the time the seller delivers the Goods to the Buyer.The Goods will be deemed delivered at the time they are stowed on board the vessel.

修改后的例2准确地表达了货物所有权转移给买方的时间定义为货物被装上船时起。可见, 词的选用对读者理解时所付出的努力直接产生影响, 用词不当会影响关联程度, 以致引起理解上的误差。

(三) 定义法律术语的含义

法律专业语言与普通环境下的英语词语的含义往往差别较大, 如果不能深刻理解一些重要专业词汇与普通用法的差异, 将造成很大风险。比如在一般的英文合同中都有免责条款, 规定在某些情况下免除违约方的责任。条款中通常会包含“consequential loss” (后果性责任) 这个词, 而在实践中, 对这个词的解释却争议颇多。通常情况下, “consequential loss”可以等同于“indirect loss” (间接损失) , 但二者所涵盖的范围却有差异, 尤其体现在“利润损失” (loss of profit) 上。如果一个免责条款仅仅写上“consequential loss”, 则不一定完全免除利润损失方面的责任。

例3:The Seller will liable for any loss, damage, cost or expense incurred by the Purchaser arising from the supply by the Seller of any such faulty goods or any goods or materials not being suitable for the purposes for which they are required save that the Seller’s liability for consequential loss is limited to the values of the contracts.

法院认为, 该条款中的“consequential loss”仅指Hadley v.Baxendale案中的“second limb”, 即间接损失, 而双方争议的利润损失并不属于法院理解的“consequential loss”的范围, 而该利润损失属于直接损失, 因此, 该项利润损失不得免责。由此可见, 英文合同必须明确专业属于的含义, 不能准确定义的词语必须用明确的, 哪怕是冗长的语言来明确其具体所示的含义, 方能避免合同风险。

三、句法关联性与风险

关联的程度取决于话语所具有的语境效果和处理时所付出的努力 (processing effort) 。在句法层面 (syntactic level) , 合同条款非话语交际, 作者应把所能运用的具有最大关联的信息表达出来, 以利读者的理解。但有时, 如对某些词的意义不加限定, 或限定不够、使用的语言不够精确都会造成理解误差, 而一旦发生纠纷, 合同的各方总会对合同中的条款以有利于自己一方的理解来解释, 因此修饰语在合同条款中的关联性上尤为重要。

例4: (1) All income tax, business tax, corporation tax, profit tax and any other duties, charges, fees or taxes arising out of or in connection with this AGREEMENT shall be borne by the SELLER.

(2) All duties, charges, fees or taxes arising out of or in connection with this AGREEMENT, including income tax, business tax, corporation tax, profit tax, shall be borne by the SELLER.

例4中, 前一种是的表达模式是“列举+概述”;后一种则是“概述+列举”。这两个条款的理解上可能存在差异。比如, 条款中未提到的“inspection fees” (检验费) 是否该由卖方承担呢?如果采用 (1) 的表达, inspection fees是否由卖方承担存在很大的不确定性, 原因在于, “any other duties, charges, fees or taxes”也应该是对前述各种“税”的概述, 不包括任何“费”, 尽管在概述中提到了“费”, 但卖方仍可能逃避承担“检验费”的义务。然而, 如果采用 (2) 的表达, 即采取“概述+列举”的方式, 则正好相反, 因为一般认为, “列举”只是“概述”的一部分, “列举”并未穷尽前面的“概述”所要涵盖的全部内容。因此, 如果采用 (2) 的表达, 则卖方毫无争议地也应当承担“检验费用”。

四、语篇关联性与风险

一份完整的英文合同的内容需要保持一致, 但从语篇层面 (textual level) 上讲, 这种保持合同整体性的要求有时并不一定就能确保合同安全可靠。这涉及的一个主要问题就是对合同的解释原则问题, 即合同的解释只依据合同本身进行整体解释, 而不会考虑外来证据 (external evidence) 的影响。

(一) 合同的整体解释与部分解释存在差异

合同是由很多条款构成, 对合同的解释是依据整个合同还是个别条款, 则有可能产生差异, 造成风险。试看下例:

卖方应对其违约给买方造成的实际的直接损失承担责任和风险。

因为条款11.3.1是第11条“保证条款”项下的一款, 其内容应于第11条相一致, 所以应解释为卖方承担责任和风险仅限于第11条保证条款中的规定, 而不是整个合同;但如果依据合同解释原则, 作为标题和副标题的“11 GUARENTEE”和“11.1 Consequences of Non-Compliance”不得影响合同的解释, 即合同的解释要放入整个合同中进行, 标题的作用仅是为了方便查找, 那么卖方承担风险和责任的范围就是违反整个合同中的任意条款。

(二) 合同解释不吸收外来证据

英文合同解释的一个重要原则就是不吸收外来证据 (external evidence) , 及合同的解释是依据合同本身的措辞, 而不会根据合同外来的证据解释。因此卖方出示正式合同签署之前的其他版本, 法官一般不做考虑。以下例子就是很好的例证。

本条款的标题是“indemnity”, 但9.1条中却出现了“warrants”字眼。这就带来了麻烦。究竟适用哪个词将影响到买方的权益。如果是“indemnity”, 当货物出现瑕疵时, 卖方必须先维修, 然后项卖方速配维修费用;而如果是“warranty”, 当货物出现瑕疵时, 则买方可以不经维修, 直接起诉卖方违反该保证条款, 请求损害赔偿。而本案中, 买方在货物出现瑕疵时并未维修, 也就没有发生维修费用, 买方认为, 尽管标题是“indemnity”, 但双方的真实意思表示是“warranty”;而卖方在法庭上出示了合同签署前的版本, 旨在说明双方确实想把“warranty”改为“indemnity”, 主张买方应未产生维修费用从而物权向其索赔。法院认为这是一个“warranty”条款, 原因就在于, 合同的解释只依据合同条款本身。所以, 第一, “Indemnity”只是合同的标题, 依据合同解释原则, 标题不影响合同的内容, 因而从合同的内容清晰可见这是一个“warranty”条款;第二, 卖方出示的合同以外的证据, 只能说明双方的谈判过程, 对双方最终签署的合同的内容没有影响, 因此法庭有权不作考虑。

但是, 合同的这种只依据条款本身进行解释的方法在法学界尚存争议, 所以为了更加明确, 对于例11, 应当在11.3.1中的“non-compliance”后加上“with this GURAANTEE clause”或者“with this AGREEMENT”, 以确定卖方的责任和风险是违反该保证条款还是违法整个合同。而对于例12, 不仅应当放弃外来证据的企图, 更重要的是做到合同的标题与内容的统一, 以致整个合同的统一才是避免风险的上佳方法。

(三) 合同中前后矛盾条款的处理

英文合同的结构主要包括标题、序言、定义、正文和特别条款等部分。如果合同中各部分的内容不一致时, 从语篇角度该如何解决这个问题?实践中的很多案例形成了一套规则。比如, 合同的序言部分往往都有个“签约背景条款” (whereas clause) , 主要描述签约的目的等事实情况, 对签约事实的介绍源于英国法上的禁反言原则 (estoppel) , 即一方在“whereas部分”所做的陈述, 事后不得否认。针对“whereas部分”与正文条款发生冲突时如何解决的问题, Lord Esher MR在re Moon, ex v.ex p.Dawes一案中确立了三个原则:一, “whereas部分”清楚, 主文部分模糊时, 优先考虑“whereas部分”;二, “whereas部分”模糊, 主文部分清楚, 优先考虑主文条款;三, 二者都清楚但存在矛盾, 则优先考虑主文条款。遗憾的是, “whereas部分”在合同中的作用尚存争议, 禁反言原则也只是一个习惯规则, 所以为了谨慎起见, 建议除了在“whereas部分”作事实陈述之外, 在合同主文部分, 也要求提供事实陈述的一方明确保证其表述的真实性, 这样在发生争议时就可以减少风险。

参考文献

[1Sperber, D&Wilson, D.Relevance:Communication and Cogni-tion[M].Oxford:Basil Blackwell, 1986:165.

[2]方梦之.译学辞典[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2004.127.

外销艺术品 篇8

围墙外的商铺

阿拉伯和波斯的商人从唐代以来就一直靠着广州的繁荣贸易而为生。就像其他中国的古老城市一样,广州的中心区也是被墙包围,主要道路都是在围墙内,墙外外延出很多市场和贸易区,周边国家通过海运日夜不休地把广州,或者说是中国的艺术品带去世界各地。明朝君主禁止西方商人进入澳门,但是清朝的统治者在18世纪打通了这扇大门。满族人作为当时中国的外来人种,他们热衷也习惯于与各个国家和族裔的人建立关系,并给各族人明确的定位。他们称其他国家为“进贡国”。18世纪前来中国做商贸往来的西方人也必须要入乡随俗,进贡商品给皇帝。清朝统治者认为,这些外来人也只是想在中国的繁荣中获取一些利益,分得一匙羹。

17世纪早期,西班牙已取得在澳门贸易的权利,荷兰和英国也在竭尽全力地赢取与中国的贸易特权。经过长达多年的商讨,18世纪,广州成为外贸的最方便港口和中心。广州作为清代中国的贸易中心,担任着传播中国文化的重任。中国的传统艺术作品是中国悠久文化历史的一大重要组成部分。从很久前起,中国社会就非常爱护精美的艺术品。随着西方人士对于这种异域的、东方的艺术品的热爱,不仅仅是中国的艺术品,广州本地的艺术品也得以在全世界范围内流行。广州外销艺术品体现着复杂的、美好的中西文化和艺术间的交流。

广州外销画作

随着很多外国商人在广州的定居和经常来往,他们完全被中国的精美艺术品所打动,这其中就包括了西方人士的最爱油画。这是一个外国人熟知的艺术媒介,但风格、主题和笔触又是完全的不同,造成了需求量的迅猛上升,每个商人都想把这种充满新意的作画方式带回自己的国家。油画在当时对于中国艺术家还是一件非常新鲜的事情,但是他们很快就学会了如何作画的技巧,产生了诸多涌来外贸的作品。

买卖就意味着金钱,中国艺术家对于“东方油画”的渴求以非常积极的方式面对。这段时期内,广州生产了数不胜数的纪念品,艺术家用传统山水画的手法,融合进西方油画的风格,产生出一种新的西方人易于接受的东方艺术。可惜的是,只有很少的几位这方面的艺术家留下了他们的姓名,这其中就包括关联昌,他拥有19世纪中期最大的艺术品出口工作室。

艺术家中最有天分和名气的要属关作霖(亦称史贝霖“Spoilum”)。他潜心学习欧洲的玻璃油画,并从1770年开始大量创作。他不仅精熟于这种技巧,还对西方人物画像的姿势和组成潜心研究。当时,如果哪个商人想找他画画像,一般要静坐两三个小时,价格则是现在的10美元。他是一位真正的国际艺术家,作品远销英国、荷兰、法国等。

虽然可以到达中国的西方人士不多,但是这并不妨碍欧洲人对于广州的了解。许多画家创作城市的景观图,包括商铺、港口和广州周边的乡村等。这部分画作的长期买家是船长和水手,也许是因为他们对于景观和大海的热爱。几百年前流行的新型油画,在现在的市场中反响又是如何?油画虽然在当时大量生产,但还是数量稀少,加之很多画作没有明确的艺术家或艺术家根本没有名气,因此没有很多作品成为市场的宠儿。

但是这并不能否定一些好的作品在欧美市场上的表现。相比于我们经常听到的百万美元交易,这些画作的价格在几百到上千美元不等,偶尔会出现上万美元的情况,这不是一个坏的标志。画作的确是带有创新性,但是鉴于当时以商业用途大量生产的原因,作品的质量并不能达到顶尖,加之油画在当时并不是中国艺术家熟知和有代表性的艺术媒介,很多作品略显单薄和麻木,无法同西方油画或者中国水墨画媲美。但是,单单作为这一艺术类别来讲,升值的空间还是非常大。中国艺术品总体在欧美艺术市场上蒸蒸日上,广州外销油画虽然不是最具有代表性和价值的,但也绝对代表了一个时期的艺术风格,想必在今后的日子里价值会慢慢升温。

广州出口瓷器

瓷器,应该说是中国艺术的象征,这点从它的英文名“China”上就可以看出来了。在最近的十几年里,水墨画、铜器等才在欧美市场火爆起来,但是在这之前,瓷器一直都是西方人眼中最能代表中国历史和工艺的艺术品。广州作为改革开放以前唯一的中国出口贸易城市,它的外销瓷器,就是中国的外销瓷器。

中国瓷器,并不是简单地就是艺术品的一大类别,它其实是被分为“中国瓷”和“中国外销瓷”两大部分。当我们要去研究和讨论中国瓷器时,必须先把这一点搞清楚。“中国瓷”就是我们平时在博物馆、故宫、电视、家里见到的,我们经常提到的官窑、民窑瓷,主要供给中国大陆居民。“外销瓷”则是在16世纪中国与西班牙建立贸易往来后才出现的。它只对外销售,风格、质量都是当时中国人看不上、理解不了的。

清朝时出口最多的是茶,中国人也是在那时把茶文化传播到了世界各地,英国的早茶、印度的奶茶、美国的花草茶最早都是由中国贸易而起。对这些饮茶的新手来讲,他们对茶具的需求就紧接而上了。广州人看到这个商机,开始在全国范围内生产质量并不高但是符合西方人审美和习惯的瓷茶具。一种新的工艺品就这样诞生了。越来越多的欧洲商人把他们的设计带入中国,希望广州生产商可以制作出更加符合西方文化又带有东方韵味的瓷器。

从16世纪起,蓝白一直是出口瓷器的统一颜色,直到17世纪末期。彩瓷渐渐变得流行起来。蓝白瓷虽然充满了中国风味,但是有时难以描绘出生动的细节,时间长了也略显单调。相反的,彩瓷可以精确地讲出一个故事,多色彩也更容易变成家居装饰中的一部分。就这样,彩瓷在18世纪变成了广州外销瓷器的代表,渐渐形成了外销瓷的独特之处。

随着18世纪早期欧洲出现自己的烧瓷厂,西方世界对于广州外销瓷的需求量逐渐下降,18世纪下半叶,出口销量遭遇急剧地下滑。但这并不是结束,新的国际市场给外销瓷注入新鲜的血液。1784年,美国正式独立,并与中国建立直接贸易往来,美国商人把他们的需求和新设计交给了广州商人。越来越多的美国政商名流开始订制外销瓷,给自己的特殊节日或是作私人收藏。这些作品,与欧洲的精美瓷器相比,更多地融入了美国精神和个人色彩,比如乔治华盛顿像、当地乡景等。

进入到19世纪时,广州出口瓷器失去了它的主要地位,更多地变成了古董收藏品,而非家具日用品。欧美艺术家在那时已经完全了解了烧瓷工艺,并开始制作属于西方世界自己的瓷器。广州外销瓷器和上述的外销油画在欧美市场上有着相同的处境。随着现在艺术市场的国际化,越来越多的中国本土瓷器进入西方的市场中,比起这些瓷器,出口瓷器则显得质量不高、又没有那么带有中国历史风味,就好像夹生饭一样。价格从几美元到几万美金不等。如果说要画出一张外销瓷器价格图,那真是显得没有什么意义。

然而,外销瓷器又不是全然没有价值。是的,在很多方面它比不过本土瓷,但是它唯一的出色处就是它当时的特殊客户群和用途。如果要选择有价值的作品,那么就必须得看它之前的主人是否达官权贵,因为这样的出身会一下使外销瓷从“矮矬穷”变成“高富贵”,例如去年丘吉尔的孙女在苏富比拍卖行的瓷器收藏。其次,就是要看设计师,虽然大多数的外销瓷并没有哪个艺术家在背后做支撑,大部分都是作坊货,比不上官窑民窑,但也有一些珍贵作品是出自中外著名工匠之手。

那么很多人就会考虑广州外销瓷是否具有收藏价值。国内市场也许还没有太多接触这种艺术形式,毕竟从一开始外销瓷就是流通于欧美的,但是在欧美市场外销瓷还是可以被考虑买进的。对于一些想花小金额在欧美市场试水的藏家来说,这的确是不赖的选择,既没有本土瓷上百万的价格承担的风险高,又不用担心外销瓷的市场浮动太大,因为市场对外销瓷的定位一直是在装饰品类,而装饰品不同于美术品类,价值一直在随着时间慢慢平稳上升。

英国Cohen&Cohen画廊的负责人Michael Cohen就讲了一个生动的例子:

“我最近花5万英镑在欧洲买了一对我当时卖掉的外销瓷花瓶。1977年我第一次买进这一对花瓶花了3200英镑。算上这些年货币的增值和通货膨胀等因素,这对花瓶的价值增高了9.6%。如果这一对花瓶是大作的话,百分比肯定还会高出更多。”

研究古董的Nicolas Johnson博士提到:

“这些年美国外销瓷市场很火爆,只要是带有美国国旗和美国鹰的外销瓷都能被高价卖出,同时,早期出口美国瓷器也在市场上表现良好。”

美国宾夕法尼亚州的中国出口瓷商人Elinor Cordon说:

“1964年,我花2600美元买了一个广州外销瓷盘子,我当时觉得自己买贵了,但是在2001年,这个碟子在拍卖场上的价格是4.5万美元,这么来说,它的净价值增高了8%”。

其他外销艺术品的收藏价值

除了油画和瓷器,广东外销艺术品还包括很多,比如铜器、金属器、丝绸等。总的来说,它们都有一个共同点:中不中洋不洋的一种特殊艺术产物。这并不是一个贬抑的评论,每一个作品的存在都有它的理由,广州外销艺术品也同样是历史的产物。虽然现在它在欧美市场还不属于高端市场,大多数作品因为质量原因被归类为装饰品类别,但这并不代表广东外销艺术品就没有收藏价值,也并不是只有高端美术品才值得花大价格买进收藏。艺术收藏的根本意义是在于符合藏家的欣赏喜好和水平,广州外销品可以作为藏家提高生活品味、装饰家居、了解历史的一个重要渠道。

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