语法的英文（精选7篇）
语法的英文 篇1
英文语法难题的应对技巧：英语语法公式
公式1
先行词+介词+关系代词+定语从句
● The house in which I used to live has becomea garden.我过去住的房子已经变成了一个花园。
公式2
先行词，+which/who/whom/whose/when/where+定语从句非限制性
定语从句用逗号与主句分开，that不能引导非限制性定语从句,who一般不能替代whom。
● Between the two parts of the concert is aninterval, when the audience can buy ice-cream.音乐会的两部分中间有间歇，这时候，观众可以去买冰激凌。
公式3
(先行词，+)as引导的定语从句
● He made a long speech, as we expected.正如我们所预料的一样，他的演讲很长。
公式4
时间状语从句: 主句+when/while/as引导的时间状语从句
when/while/as意为“当……时候”。
● Mary made coffee while her guests werefinishing their meal.客人们快吃完饭的时候，玛丽煮了咖啡。
公式5
时间状语从句: 主句+as soonas/directly/immediately等引导的时间状语从句
引导词意为“一……就……”。
● I recognized her immediately I saw her.我一见到她，就认出了她。
公式6
时间状语从句: 主句+before/after引导的时间状语从句
● I went to bed after I finished my homework.做完作业后，我就上床睡觉了。
公式7
时间状语从句: 主句+since引导的时间状语从句
● Mary has been in Shanghai since she left Beijing.玛丽自从离开北京后就一直在上海。
公式8
时间状语从句: 主句+till/until引导的时间状语从句
● I will stay here until you come back.我会一直待在这里直到你回来。
公式9
原因状语从句：主句+because/as/since引导的原因状语从句
● As all the seats were full, he had to standup.由于所有的位子都满了，他只好站着。
because, since, as的区别
公式10
地点状语从句：主句+where/wherever引导的地点状语从句
● You cango wherever you like these days.这些天你可以去你想去的地方。
公式11
让步状语从句：疑问词-ever引导的让步状语从句
● To show our respect, we usually have to takeour gloves off whoever we are to shake hands with.为了表示我们的尊重，不论要跟谁握手，我们通常都要摘掉手套。
公式12
引导让步状语从句时，疑问词-ever可与“no matter+疑问词”互换。
● Wherever/No matter where you go, I will bewith you.无论你去哪儿，我都和你一起。
公式13
让步状语从句：主句+(al)though/as/while/eventhough/even if引导的让步状语从句
● Tim is in good shape physically even thoughhe doesn’t get much exercise.即使不做太多锻炼，蒂姆还是保持了很好的体形。
公式14
条件状语从句：主句+if/unless/aslong as引导的条件状语从句
● Let’s go out for awalk unless you are too tired.如果你不是太累的话，我们出去散一会步吧。
公式15
条件状语从句：主句+so/such...+that+结果状语从句
● He worked so hard that he got ill.他工作那么努力，结果病倒了。
公式16
目的状语从句：主句+so that/inorder that/in case引导的目的状语从句
● I’ll run slowly so that you can catch up withme.为了能让你赶上我，我会慢慢跑。
公式17
比较状语从句：主句+than引导的比较状语从句
● The weather was worse than I had expected.天气比我预料的还要糟。
公式18
比较状语从句：主句+as引导的比较状语从句
● French is as familiar to him as English.他对法语就像对英语一样熟悉。
公式19
方式状语从句：主句+as引导的方式状语从句
as if/as though引导的方式状语从句
● You ought to do as Paul tells you.你应该按照保罗吩咐你的去做。
公式20
当as if引导的方式状语从句表示与事实相反的情况时，从句常用虚拟语气。
● She closed her eyes as though she was verytired.她闭上了眼睛，好像是很累了。
公式21
虚拟语气在状语从句中的用法：
If...did/were...， 主语+would/should/could/mightdo...表示与现在事实相反的假设。
从句用一般过去时，主句谓语动词用“would/should/could/might+动词原形”。
● If you were the manager, we would not be sotired.如果你是经理，我们就不会这么累了。
公式22
If...had done...，主语+would/should/could/mighthave done...表示与过去事实相反的假设。
从句用过去完成时，主句谓语动词用“would/should/could/might+have+过去分词”。
● If we had taken the other road, we might havearrived here in time for the meeting.如果我们走了另一条路的话，或许就能及时赶到这里开会了。(陕西)
公式23
If...did/were todo/should do...，主语+would/should/could/might do...表示与将来事实相反的假设。
从句谓语动词用过去式、“should+动词原形”或“wereto+动词原形”，主句谓语动词用“would/should/could/might+动词原形”。
● If it were fine tomorrow, I would goshopping.如果明天天气好，我就去购物。
公式24
If...had done...， 主语+would do...
● If he had set out earlier, he would be homenow.如果他早点出发的话，他现在就已经到家了。
公式25
If...should do...， 主语+would have done...
● If she shouldleave, I would have heard about it.如果她要走，我早就应该听说了。
公式26
Should/Were/Had+(从句)主语+谓语
主句if引导的虚拟条件句的谓语动词中含有should, were, had时，可将if省略，而将should, were, had提前，构成倒装。、
● Were I you(=If I were you), I would go.如果我是你，我就去。
公式27
With/Without/Butfor+名词，主语+虚拟语气形式的谓语...
句子的虚拟条件是通过词或短语如with， without， otherwise, but for等来表示的。
● Without the greenhouse effect, the earthwould be about thirtythree degrees Celsius cooler than it is.如果没有温室效应，地球的温度将比现在的温度低大约33摄氏度。
公式28
主句+as if+(从句)主语+did/had done...as if引导的从句
常用虚拟语气，用一般过去时表示与现在事实相反的情况;用过去完成时表示与过去事实相反的情况。
● She acted as if she had been the hostessyesterday.她昨天表现得就好像她是女主人似的。
公式29
主句+so that+(从句)主语+should/could/might do...
so that意为“为了”，它引导的从句表示目的。
● He took a taxi to the station so that heshould not miss the train.为了不错过火车，他乘出租车去火车站。
公式30
主句+lest+从句(主语+(should) do...)
lest意为“唯恐”，它引导的从句表示目的。
● They spoke in whispers lest they (should) be heard.他们低声说话，唯恐被别人听见。
公式31
...wish (that)+主语+did/had done/would do...
wish后的宾语从句用一般过去时表示与现在事实相反;用过去完成时表示与过去事实相反;用过去将来时表示与将来事实相反。
● I wish it were autumn in Beijing all the year around.我希望北京全年都是秋天。
公式32
...suggest/recommend/insist等+(that)+主语+(should)do...
● I suggest that we (should) set off at once.我建议我们立刻出发。
公式33
...would rather+主语+did/had done...
would rather后的从句用一般过去时表示与现在或将来事实相反，用过去完成时表示与过去事实相反。
● I would rather you hadn’t told him.我宁愿你没有告诉他。
公式34
It is+形容词/名词/过去分词+that+主语+(should)do...
● It is strange that the girl (should) be sorude.那个女孩那么无礼，这真奇怪。
公式35
...suggestion/advice/demand等+that+主语(+should)do...
在表示“建议”、“命令”、“要求”等的名词后的表语从句和同位语从句中用虚拟语气。
● My suggestion is that we (should) get startedsoon.我的建议是我们应该尽快出发。
公式36
It is (high/about)time that+主语+did/should do...
● It is high time that you went to school.早就到了你该去上学的时间了。
公式37
if only+主语+did/had done...
用一般过去时表示与现在或将来事实相反，用过去完成时表示与过去事实相反。
● If only I had another chance.要是我再有一次机会就好了。
公式38
不可数名词/单数可数名词+单数谓语
● Still water runs deep.静水流深。
公式39
动名词/不定式/主语从句+单数谓语
● Doing eye exercises is good for your eyes.做眼保健操对你的眼睛有好处。
英语词汇分类记忆
科技教育
|
clone |
克隆 |
|
development |
发展 |
|
download |
下载（计算机用语） |
|
education |
教育 |
|
experiment |
实验 |
|
invention |
发明物 |
|
influence |
影响 |
|
information |
信息，通知，消息 |
|
machine |
机器 |
|
message |
消息；信息 |
|
robot |
机器人 |
|
technology |
科学技术 |
服装
|
clothes |
衣服，各种衣物 |
|
coat |
外套 |
|
dress |
女服,连衣裙 |
|
jacket |
短上衣，夹克衫 |
|
jeans |
牛仔裤 |
|
overcoat |
大衣 |
|
raincoat |
雨衣 |
|
shirt |
男衬衫 |
|
shorts |
（户外活动）短裤 |
|
skirt |
女裙 |
|
sock |
短袜 |
|
sweater |
毛线衣，厚运动衫 |
|
T-shirt |
T恤衫 |
|
trousers |
裤子 |
语法的英文 篇2
1 Lexicogrammatical Ambiguity
Lexicogramatical ambiguity is a kind of common yet complicated one.For lexicogrammatical ambiguity in phrasal level, two types of ambiguity will be explored, that is, the nominal phrase and the verbal phrase.
Phrases which have lexicogrammatical ambiguities like:old men and women;small bed and chair are difficult for us to decide whether the adjective is modifying all the following elements or only the immediate constituents.Thus for each of the two phrases, there are two interpretations.For the first one, it can be interpreted as the adjective“old”only modifies the immediate constituents“men”or it modifies the following noun phrase“men and women”.This is the same case for the second structure.Since the head has more than one modifier, which modifies different sentence elements and different attachments, they produce different meanings.This unclear modification relationship causes ambiguity though the whole phrase is still a subordinate structure.
Verbal phrases can also be ambiguous.For example, the following two phrases:visiting scholars;they are relieved.In those two clauses, the present participle“visiting”and the past participle“relieved”can function either as“classifier”and“epithet”.In English, verbs are classified into transitive and intransitive verbs traditionally.However, the boundary between transitive and intransitive verbs is not clear cut.The frequent occurring cases are some verbs can be used as an intransitive verb as well as a transitive verb.Another case in which lexicogrammatical ambiguity may be caused is when the present participle or the past participle is presented.In some clauses, it is hard for the reader or receiver to decide the function of the verb.For example, the clause“they are relieved”.It can be interpreted as a material process as well as a relational process.What is more, within the framework of transitivity system in SFG, the process is realized by the verb group.As a result, a clause can be interpreted into different processes when the verb by which the process realized can be used to realize more than one process.
2 Functional Analysis of Lexicogrammatical Ambigu-ity
2.1 Nominal Phrase
Two types of lexicogrammatical ambiguity on phrasal level will be focused on, that is, the nominal phase and the verbal phrase.The adjective noun+noun structure is the most frequent structural ambiguity.Now first please look at the following noun phrase:
1) old men and women
Halliday (2000) proposes the concept of“scale”and stated that language has five scales:morpheme, word, phrase, clause and text.He also suggested that in SFG, linguists adopt the smallest bracketing in structural analysis.Then the nominal phrase“old men and women”will naturally be analyzed as the adjective“old”modifies the coordinated structure“men and women”according to the smallest bracketing.
Another frequent construction is specifier+head.For example:
2) Small children’s bed
Halliday mentioned the two terms“classifier”and“epithet”when discussing the experiential structure of nominal phrase.The function of classifier is to state the category of objects while the function of“specifier”is to state the attributes of objects.Thus the construction then can be analyzed in the following way:the first is to treat“small”as“specifier”while“children’s”as“classifier”;the second interpretation is to treat“small children’s”as the“classifier”.
2.2 The clausal level
In this subpart, three kinds of lexicogrammatical ambiguity will be analyzed, that is, ambiguity caused by different functions of verbs;ambiguity caused by Elliptical structure and ambiguity caused by the unclear modification relationship.
2.2.1 Lexicogrammatical Ambiguity Caused by Different Func-tions of Verbs
Halliday (2000) proposes the transitivity system to explain the ideational function which is one of the three functions.The transitivity system consists of six different processes;they are material, mental, relational, verbal, behavioral and existential process.The first three are regarded as the main processes and the rest are minor processes.Different processes embrace different participants.For example, in material process, it typically includes“actor”and“goal”;“carrier”and“attribute”in relational process, etc.another significant constituent is“circumstantial elements”.Within the framework of transitivity system, another important constituent is“circumstantial elements”.Further more, the process is realized by the verbal group, the participant is realized by the nominal group and the circumstantial elements by the adverbs or the prepositional phrase.Now let us stride for the analysis of the ambiguity caused by different functions of the verb.Please look at the following example:
3) Comedian A:My dog’s got no nose.
Comedian B:Your dog’s got no nose?How does it smell?
Comedian A:Terrible. (Bloor&Bloor 1995:130)
We can see that this example is a joke in which the lexicogrammatical ambiguity plays a positive part.The conversation produces the funnies because the verb“smell”has different functions in the interrogative clause.As we have mentioned that the process is realized by the verb and this leads to the conclusion that the clause will be expressing different experiences when the verb functions differently.Thus, the interrogative can be interpreted into two kinds of processes and the interpretation would be like the following.This joke is based on ambiguity.Comedian B is asking about the dog’s ability to smell things.In the intended meaning of his question, the Process is mental and he (the dog) is Senser.Comedian A, ignoring the relevance of the question, surprisingly interprets it as an entirely new topic concerning the odour possessed by the dog.In this question, the Process is relational and he (the dog) is Carrier.Comedian A treats the verb smell as a copular verb.
2.2.2 Lexicogrammatical Ambiguity Caused by Elliptical Structure
Conciseness of ellipsis makes emphasis highlighted and expression forceful.However, it often causes a sentence ambiguous.In English, we often find elliptical structure in comparative sentences and they incline to be ambiguous.For example:
4) He likes you more than me.
The meaning of the clause can hardly identified because of its indeterminacy of meaning.The sentence can be interpreted either to mean“he likes you more than I like you”or“he likes you more than he likes me”.It means that the meaning of one sentence will be indeterminate when the participants in the clause are hard to identify.
2.2.3 Lexicogrammatical ambiguity caused by unclear modifi-cation
The introduction of the concept of“circumstantial elements”will be helpful and can provide an effective illustration for this type of ambiguity.Let us consider the following examples:
5) “I will tell you what I tell every taxpayer who sits in that chair, ”said the tax-collector at the beginning of Brown’s audit, “it’s a privilege to live in this great country, and you should pay your taxes with a smile.”
“Thank goodness, ”said the visibly relaxed Brown, “I thought you were going to ask for money.”
In the previous analysis, we thought that the prepositional phrase can be interpreted either as“means”or as“accompaniment”.But we did not go further at that time.Here we are going to deepen the analysis.
Another interpretation for this kind of lexicogrammatical ambiguity will be presented.And then with the introduction of the concept of circumstantial elements, the clause will be analyzed as the following:
3 Conclusion
The interpretation of lexicogrammatical ambiguity has beenshowed from the functional approach.It mainly discusses structur-al ambiguity on the phrasal and the clausal level.The ambiguityanalysis from a functional approach is much more efficient thanfrom other approaches.Further more, other kinds of ambiguity, like semantic ambiguity or grammatical ambiguity can also besolved from the functional perspective.Since for most of the sec-ond language learners, ambiguity is hard for them to learn.Thesufficient explanation of why ambiguity occurs and how to elimi-nate ambiguity can be helpful for foreign language learning.Ifmore and more scholars would take a functional approach in ambi-guity analysis, a new model for ambiguity analysis will be provid-ed and the study of ambiguous phenomenon can be deepened.
摘要：歧义是一个常见的语言现象, 有效地分析语言分析对于交际和外语学习都是很有帮助的。从功能方法的角度对词汇语法歧义进行了着重分析, 并特别解释及物系统框架内的词汇语法歧义。这充分说明系统功能语法为分析词汇语法歧义提供了一个全新而有效的模式。
英文诗歌的视觉语法结构分析 篇3
【关键词】视觉诗 视觉模态 再现意义 互动意义 构图意义
一、视觉诗及其研究回顾
语言文字是传统诗歌的表达手段，而视觉诗打破了传统诗歌的书写规则，利用字母的大小写、空格、标点符号等文字安排产生视觉效果，或是结合语言所表达的意义，利用诗行或诗节组成图形，带给读者以强烈的视觉刺激，进而表达诗意。其文字的组合方式以及由这种组合方式所构成的图像是诗意表达和理解的关键。
视觉诗自诞生之日起就一直颇受争议，但国内外学者对它的研究热情却持续不减。视觉诗的研究从单纯的文学评论、文体学及修辞学转向运用语言学的相关理论，对视觉诗歌进行多维度的探讨。如运用利奇的变异理论，阐释作品中的各种变异形式；从语篇角度，探讨视觉诗的衔接与连贯；运用认知语言学中的理论，探究其诗学效果的内在机制。传统的分析模式忽视了构成视觉诗的其他符号系统的分析。九十年代兴起的多模态话语分析打破了单一言语信息的框框，分析两种或两种以上模态的语篇和模态之间如何构建意义，把言语信息和非言语信息交际纳入分析框架。本文将视觉诗的研究置于多模态话语分析框架下，探讨图像符号在诗歌解读中的三大意义，即再现意义、互动意义和构图意义。
二、视觉诗的多模态性
语言是意义的重要载体，但意义的展现并非只靠语言来传递，多种媒体如图像、声音、色彩等符号都可以表达意义。随着新媒介的出现，不同的媒介在意义的展现中发挥着重要作用。这些传递符号的物质手段应用到社会交际中，就形成了一套具有特定语法系统的表意手段 --- 模态。所谓多模态，是指由两种及以上符号编码实现意义的文本 （李战子2003）。
模态在合适的语境中表达意义，和其他模态来共同配合完成交际任务，对语篇的意义构建做出贡献。随着互联网和信息技术的高度发展，意义建构的多模态化无处不在。为了使交流更加顺畅，人们会借助多种模态来交换信息和处理各种关系；多媒体教学成为了学校教育的主流。在语篇分析领域，多模态语篇引起了越来越多学者们的关注，多模态话语分析理论由此诞生。
多模态话语是指运用各种感官，通过语言、动作、图像、声音等多种手段和符号资源进行交际的现象。多模态话语分析是建立在Halliday 的社会符号学理论基础上的一个崭新的话语分析形式。它接受了系统功能语言学的语言观，认为语言是社会符号和意义潜势，语言以外的其他符号系统也是意义的源泉；多模态话语具有系统性； 多模态话语具有概念功能、人际功能和语篇功能； 语境因素和多模态话语的意义解读之间有着密不可分的联系。多模态话语分析的意义在于它可以将语言和其他相关的意义资源整合起来，通过分析看到语言系统在意义交换过程中所发挥的作用，以及其他符号系统在这个过程中所产生的效果，从而使话语意义的解读更加全面、更加准确 （朱永生2007）。
按照朱永生提出的多模态话语识别的判断标准，视觉诗涉及视觉模态中的两个符号系统，即语言文字与图像，属于多模态语篇。视觉诗的视觉模态即该视觉诗的“诗形”信息或“印刷体式”的信息。它是透过排列组合文字与符号（包括标点符号），在版面上吸引眼睛造成特殊视觉效果，来强化或辅佐意义。
三、视觉模态的意义
Kress & Van Leeuwen （1996） 认为图像不是语言文字的插图或示例，而是独立于语言文字之外的社会符号系统。他们根据系统功能语言学理论，分析组成视觉模态的图像元素，进而凸显图像等符号在构建语篇时的作用；并借用韩礼德的三大元语言功能，分别从再现意义、互动意义、构图意义三个层面来分析视觉符号的语义关系。
1.再现意义。再现意义对应概念功能，包括叙事再现和概念再现。再现意义主要探讨的是不同图像之间或同一图像中不同成分之间存在的概念关系。下面以William Shelly Burford的A Christmas Tree为例，分析印刷体式诗歌所呈现的叙事意义。
Star
If you are
A love compassionate.
You will walk with us this year.
We face a glacial distance，who are here
Huddld
At your feet.
根据诗中文字所构成的图像，我们可以看到诗形与诗作内容是相对应的。诗节的第一行star构成了圣诞树的顶部，第五节诗行最长象征树的底部。该诗通过长短诗行的排列组合，巧妙地呈现出圣诞树的形状，契合了诗歌的标题。原诗倒数第二行那个Huddld并非拼写错误，也非诗歌中常见的缩略形式，而是诗人有意省去一个字母e，使得五个带长柄的字母宛如围在圣诞树下做祈祷的人们。圣诞树在西方文化中象征着吉利，诗中的“星”Star指“福星”，寓意在新年到来之际，人们在圣诞树下祈求幸福，盼福星带来好运。这种特殊的排版方式，不仅造成了视觉上的强烈冲击，而且进一步烘托了诗歌的主题。
2.互动意义。互动意义对应人际功能，涉及距离、接触、视角和情态四要素。互动意义探讨图像中参与者之间的社会关系、图像设计者的交际目的，以及读者对图像内容的解读程度等。下面以E.E Cummings的Me up at does为例，分析印刷体式诗歌所呈现的互动意义。
Me up at does
out of the floor
quietly Stare
a poisoned mouse
still who alive
is asking What
have i done that
You wouldn't have
这首诗描述的是一只中毒的老鼠，在行将死亡前与诗歌叙述者的对峙。根据 Kress & Van Leeuwen 的研究，诗歌的叙述者俯视趴在地上奄奄一息的老鼠，与其目光接触，构成了索取类图像。索取类图像是指利用图像中人物的表情、姿势或其他特点向观众索取更多的注意，当图像中人物的目光直指观众时，目光矢量在空间上形成接触，表达向观众“索取”的意义。诗歌的叙述者从高处往下俯瞰，表示人类在索取顺从；而从下往上仰视的老鼠，则在索取人类的怜悯。人与鼠之间的心理互动被淋漓尽致地展现出来，使读者融入其中，获得真切的感受。此外，老鼠做出的两个动作“stare”和 “ask” 被作者巧妙地分别安排在从两个诗节分界处算起的第二行里，这也构成了视觉上的篇章对称。
全诗所要传递的最显著的信息，也是多模态话语的起点——人类颠三倒四的话语被置于印刷版式的正上方，向读者暗示了诗歌的深层含义。即人类虽然是世界的主宰，操纵着生杀大权，但面对着老鼠的质疑，还会因惶恐不安，表现得语无伦次。多模态话语想要传递的信息焦点——老鼠的独白“我做了什么，你们人类不会做呢？”被置于印刷版式的下方，成为全诗最真实的信息，形成了对人性弱点无情的、犀利的嘲讽。诗人巧妙地采用了可视意象，向读者传递了微妙的心理活动，使得这首诗读起来更加韵味无穷。
3.构图意义。构图意义是语篇单位的组成设计和突显（张旭红 2010）。印刷体式是通过突显字母的形状、大小写、标点符号等构成前景化来实现构图意义的。下面以E.E Cummings的代表作L（a为例，分析印刷体式诗歌所呈现的构图意义。
这首诗以生动的视觉形象再现了一片落叶缓缓飘落的画面。全诗仅由四个单词构成（a leaf falls loneliness），诗人刻意将单词拆分成五个诗节，并垂直排列来模拟树叶时快时慢地飘摇下落的情形，将一个静态的秋日景色以动态的形式呈现在读者的眼前。
诗歌第一行的两个字母 “l”和“a”由半个括号连接，形象地预示树叶即将飘落。第三和第四行的相同字母的不同组合“af”、“fa”，犹如叶子落下时飘摇的状态。第五行的“ll”再次重复主题“一个”和“孤独”。第六行只有一个字母“s”和另外半个括号，表示树叶落地并发出轻微的摩擦声，造成视听双重效果。在诗节的最后一行，诗人把“ness”（构成抽象名词的后缀）与“i”放在一起，并且从排版上加以突显，以抒发内心的强烈感情，这是全诗的主旨所在。诗人巧妙地使用括号，把“loneliness”和“a leaf falls”连接起来，从而构成了一个形式上连贯的语篇。在意义层面上，括号里信息是相对次要、起陪衬作用的，而“loneliness”则是被突出的主题。通过标点符号的特殊处理，从侧面进一步再现了文本所传递的意义。
四、结语
视觉诗是诗人为了更好地传达情感，利用文字符号的巧妙编排，模仿大自然和现实世界中的事物，而创造出的一种视觉形象。视觉符号的使用给读者造成强烈的视觉冲击，从侧面烘托了诗歌主题。本文在多模态话语分析的框架下，通过对几首视觉诗的分析，探讨了视觉诗中视觉符号所表达的不同意义。文字与其他视觉符号相结合时，可以展现诗人对所表现事物的态度和感情，并且实现其概念和语篇功能。本研究进一步揭示了图像符号与文字具有相似的功能和意义，两者共同建构语篇意义，体现一种相互协同和互补的关系。因此，在对视觉诗进行解读时，需要结合语言和视觉两种模态，才能全面诠释诗歌所表达的深层含义。
参考文献：
[1]Kress，G.& Van Leeuven，T.Reading Images：The Grammar of Visual Design[M].London：Routledge，1996.
[2]胡丹.Emmett Williams诗“She loves me not”多模式话语分析[J].外语与外语教学，2007（11）：16-19.
[3]李战子.多模式话语的社会符号学分析[J].外语研究，2003 （5）：1-8.
[4]王红阳.卡明斯诗歌的多模态功能解读[J].外语教学，2007 （9）：22-26.
[5]张德禄，穆志刚.多模态功能文体学理论框架探索[J].外语教学，2012（5）：1-6.
[6]张旭红.视觉诗Meupatdoes多模态意义的构建[J].外语学刊，2010（1）：85-90.
[7]朱永生.多模态话语分析的理论基础与研究[J].外语学刊， 2007（5）：82-86.
英文简历语法错误 篇4
“Strengths: Ability to meet deadlines while maintaining composer.”
“I am a rabid typist.”
“Work History: Performed brain wave tests,1879-1981.”
“After receiving advice from several different angels, I have decided to pursue a new line of work.”
“Accounting cleric.”
“As indicted, I have over five years of experience analyzing investments.”
“Suspected to graduate early next year.”
“Disposed of $2.5 billion in assets.”
“Proven ability to track down and correct erors.”
“Accomplishments: Oversight of entire department.”
“Am a perfectionist and rarely if if ever forget details.”
“Accomplishments: Completed 11 years of high school.”
英文语法时间表示方法 篇5
(1.) 这是一个用来询问什么时间做某事的常用句型。它经常用来询问具体的时间，相当于对画线部分(表示具体时间的状语)提问。
例如：What time do you usually have lunch?
你通常什么时间吃午饭?
I usually have lunch at 12:00.
我通常在12点吃午饭。
(2.) 短语what time= when 都是对时间进行提问，但what time所问的时间范围比较小，一般用来提问比较精确的时间，回答的时候一般用具体到几点。而when所问 的时间范围比what time要大，回答的时候可以用几点钟，也可以是上午或者下午，甚至是哪一天、哪一年。
例如：What time do you usually get up? 你通常什么时间起床?
I usually get up at seven o’clock. 我通常在七点起床。
When is your birthday? 你的生日是什么时候?
It’s May 10. 是5月10日。
2. -What time is it now? 现在几点了?
- It’s about six-fourteen. 大约六点十四分。
(1.)这是询问时间的常用句型，它的意思是“现在几点钟了?”。询问时间还可以用句型：What’s the time now?或者What time is it by your watch? =What’s the time by your watch? 看看你的手表现在是几点了?
(2.)回答别人询问几点可以用句型：It+is+数字。也可以用句型：It’s +数字 +o’clock表示时间是整点。如果是几点几分，用数字表示。
例如：2：24可以是two twenty-four。
3. What time do you go to school? 你什么时候去上学?
这是一个特殊疑问句，所以不能用Yes或者No来回答。如果句子的主语是第三人称单数形式，助动词用does。
语法的英文 篇6
(Elementary Educational College of Tianjin Normal University,Tianjin 300202,China
variant formed by nationality,etc.This paper gives a brief introduction of Black American English and General American English,then illustrates differences between them on phonetics and grammar.It is of great benefits for students to understand American English and read
During the past several decades,Black American English has gradually become an important social dialect.The most importan reason is that the Black Americans are a very spectacular socia stratum in social life.But Black American English is not simply a language variant formed by national differences,it is closely linked with some social factors such as social economic status standard of education(or cultural and educational attainments)sex,age,profession,etc.Another important reason why we say Black American English is a kind of social dialect is that not all Black Americans use Black English and Black English is not used only by blacks.As a kind of English variant,Black English is used by those blacks whose social economic status is low in American society or those blacks who are just of medium income but stil keep contact with original social stratum.During recent 20 years’Black American Movements,Black English has become a symbo of black nationality and even some black Congressmen or Congresswomen deliberately use it.Gradually,Black English has entered news,television and broadcasting.In vigorously growing postwar Black American novels,Black English was an importan means of characterization and story-relating.
In American English,we cannot find a single nation-wide standard English.In 1970s,American scholars had ever held several academic conferences discussing definition of Standard American English,but had not have any result in the end.
In American,the part of English which functions as Standard English is generally called"General American English"in linguistics.According to statistics in 1944,71%of today’s American people speak General American English,though not very prue(being of a log of local variation).At present,all American big television and broadcasting organizations,such as Voice of America,use General American English.Therefore,for the sake of convenience,General American English is sometimes called"Standard American English".
3 Differences Between Black American English And Genera American English on Phonetics and Grammar
Black American English had ever been regarded as a second-class or lower language variant.But in linguistics,this is utterly groundless.Black English differs from General American English,but the differences do not change arbitrarily;they are of some regularity.
Now let's see differences between Black American English and General American English on phonetics and grammar.
3.1 On Phonetics
1)Compared with General American English,a remarkable character of Black American English on phonetics is elision of/r/.It includes two points:
a)Elision of/r/which is behind a vowel or in front of a consonant.This is not peculiar in Black English,but it is an articulation trend of American lower strata.Owing to the elision of/r/,the articulation of groups of words below in Black English had no any difference:cat-cart;hop-horp;bid-bird;shot-short.But they are of difference in upper strata.
b)Elision of/r/which is between two vowels.This is peculia in Black English.For example,in Black English,there is no difference in articulation between the word"tore"and the word"toe".
2)Elision of/l/in Black American English.In Black American English,"l"which is in word"final"or in word"medial"is often elided.So we know that many groups of words like sickslick,sea-seal,pay-pail,flaw-four which have different pronunciation in General American English are of the same pronunciation in Black American English.
3)Simplification of Consonant cluster in Black American English.For instance,the word“tend”is pronounced as/ten/,so i has the same pronunciation with the word"ten".Elision of some consonants in consonant clusters can probably appear in Genera American English,but in Black American English,it is an outstanding phenomenon.
4)Conversion of/θ/and/e/in Black American English./θwhich is in word initial in General American English is usually converted into/t/in Black American English.For example,the word"thief"is pronounced as/tif/;"thorough"is pronounced as/tΛrэ/.When/θ/is pronounced in word final(sometimes in word medial)in General American English,it'll be converted into/f/in Black American English.For instance,the Black Americans pronounce the word"tooth"as/tuf/;"everything"as/′evrifiη/,etc.In any circumstances,/e/can bi converted into/d/in Black American English.So the word"that"in Black American English can be pronounced as/d?t/.
5)Confusion of/i/and/e/in Black American English./i/and/e/in front of a nasalized consonant are often of the same pronunciation in Black American English.For instance,the articulation of vowels in some groups of words like din-den,fen-fin,gengin,kin-ken is the same.They are all pronounced as the sound between/i/and/e/.
6)Intonation.As to the rise and fall of intonation,Black American English changes greater than General American English.High tone or even falsetto is often used in Black American English,esp.in intimate atmosphere of chatting among friends.In Black American English,the use of rising tone is very common.
3.2 on Grammar
1)A very common phenomenon in Black American English is the loss of the change of"s"which is in word final.We've talked about the simplification of consonant cluster which is in word final in Black American English,but it is not simply a phenomenon of phonetics.Owing to its affecting the change of the word final,it becomes a question of grammar.We know the word"expressed"is the past tense of the word"express".In Black American English,owing to the simplification of consonant cluste which is in word final,the past tense verb"expressed"is of the same pronunciation with its original verb"express".Thus the change of the word final which acts as the symbol of past tense disappeared.From the above-mentioned examples,we can get the following conclusions:Due to the simplification of consonan cluster which is in word final in Black American English,the change of the word final which expresses noun plural forms,noun-possessive cases,the third person singular+"s"disappeared.Some Black English users not only put"s"behind the third person singular,but also put"s"behind all verbs.Here are some examples,"they studies diligently",etc.As far as they are concerned,the verbal"s"is not the symbol of the third person singular,but the symbol of present indefinite.
2)Omission of linking verbs in Black American English.This is a very peculiar syntactic character of Black American English.If an action or a state is of fixed time,or it is motionless,not often happens or appears repeatedly,"be"in the sentence can often be omitted.Omission of"be"can appear before various predicatives.For instance,"I a college English teacher now."(the predicative is a noun.);"I glad to meet you."(The predicative is an adjective.);"I here."(The predicative is an adverb.);"He at home."(The predicative is a preposition phrase.)Auxiliary verb"be"in continuous tense can also be omitted.For example,"He studying now."
One we should point out is that in Black American English,the omission of"be"is of its regularity,it is not in utter disorder.
3)In Black American English,"ain't"is widely used to form negative sentences.When predicate is not acted as by lexical verbs,"ain't"is almost unexceptionally used to be the symbol of negative sentences.
e.g.She ain't gonna see no film with her mother.
She ain’t afraid of nothing.
"ain't"is often used in the sentences of continuous tense.
e.g.I ain't coming back.
He ain't working hard.
4)Universal use of double negative and multi-negation in Black American English.From examples above we can see that the negative sentences in Black American English often adopt double negative or multi-negation.From examples below we can see clearly differences between Black American English and General American English:
huangyonghong01.tif
5)In Black American English,"It's a"is used to replace"There's a"in General American English.
e.g.
It's(=There are)20 students in our class.It's(=There is)a book on the table.
Besides,"It's"can be used in the same way as"There
is"to form interrogative sentences.
e.g.
Is it(=Is there)a bird in the tree?
6)Way of expression of word order of possessive case.Possessive case"-'s"is often
omitted in Black American English on condition that word order itself is enough to show possessive relation.
参考文献
[1]Williams S T,Joseph M.Standards and Dialects in English[M].Cambridge,Mass:Winthrop Publishers,Inc,1980.
[2]Peter S.British and American English[M].London:Collier Mac-millan Publishers,1972.
构式语法视阈下的英语语法教学 篇7
【关键词】构式语法 英语语法 教学内容 教学方法
在我国的教育体系中，英语是各教学阶段都十分重要的一项课程，在英语教学尤其是初高中的英语教学中，语法教学是十分重要的内容，但是传统的英语语法教学缺乏对语法功能和意义的重视，使学生在语法的理解上经常出现困惑，构式语法产生后就有学者开始讨论在英语语法教学中融入构式语法教学的，强调语法形式与意义的结合，为英语语法教学拓宽视阈。
一、构式语法概述
1.何为构式语法。构式语法是20世纪80年代后期产生并发展起来的一种语法理论，构式语法可以说是适应几乎整个语言门类的研究方法和流派。构式语法脱胎于认知语法，是对形式语法的悖逆，强调语言中的功能和意义，构式语法在本质上属于认知语言学的范畴，但是目前已经具有独立作为语言研究范式的特征，在一定意义上，构式主义已经形成独立的研究流派。目前，国内外研究构式语法的流派已经有多个，包括Lakoff 和Goldberg的构式语法、Langacker的认知语法、Croft的激进构式语法、体验构式语法以及在我国国内有一些应用型成果的语篇构式语法等。
2.构式语法的优势特点。构式语法是一种新的理论，对于我们认识语言具有启发性的意义，构式语法的优势特点大致体现在三个方面：（1）构式语法中提出了语言研究的整体观。在传统的英语语法教学中在语法分析时都是以词汇为起点，模块为核心进行形式上的分析研究，而构式语法强调整体性，强调形式与意义的整体性，从整体上对语言进行分析解释，英语构式语法能够解决很多疑难的语言现象。（2）语言表达分析中结合性方法的应用。在英语语法教学中，目前最普遍的方式就是将一个语言表达式拿出来，从其主谓宾等构成成分上进行自上而下的分析，从基本的构成成分、在句子中的意义以及组合表达的意义进行分析，但是无论是学生还是老师在这种分析方法下都会遇到一个问题就是遇到较为复杂的存在大量不规则表达的句式时，就无法进行自下而上的解释，这时就要从整体的视角，结合自上而下的分析方法对句子进行合理分析和解释。（3）转变以动词为中心的研究方法，更加注重语法中的构式。在以往的语法研究中关注更多的都是动词，将动词作为句子分析的主要对象，因为动词所包含的信息量更大，更容易得出句子的意义，也有助于结构的分析。但是构式语法理论强调以构式为中心，从整体的角度进行表达句的解读。
构式语法经过在实践中应用其特点不断强化，同时在理论和实践的推动下构式语法也在不断的完善，其特点也在逐渐发生着变化，作为英语教师要注意不断研究和认识构式语法和构式语法的发展，并在构式语法视阙下为英语教学的创新提供指导。
二、构式语法视阈下英语语法教学的创新
1.开启英语语法教学中的整体观教学方法应用。上文已经提到，传统的英语语法教学中往往从部分词汇、词组等基础元素出发进行句子的分解，最后将模块进行组合完成分析，按照构式语法理论这种教学方法很容易造成缺乏整体观的问题，对于一些复杂、疑难句式也难以进行解释分析，对于学生而言由于无法从整体上把握语言，也会影响对于语言的理解和应用能力培养。例如，英语中表达“给”的含义时经常用到的就是“give”，比较一下三个例句可以看出只有从整体观角度进行分析才能得出正确的含义理解：（1）Tom give me a book.（Tom给了我一本书。）（2）Tom send Lily the message.（Tom给Lily发了那个信息。）（3）Tom cooked Lily a pizza.（Tom给Lily做了一个披萨。）在上文的例句中，除了第一个例句中的“give”有“给”的意思，其他两句中都没有表示“给”的动词，但是翻译中的“给”又是从哪里看出的，这个问题的解释按照传统的语法教学方法难以进行解释，只有按照构式语法理论才能进行解释，构式语法认为有的句子结构是具有“双及物构式”的特征，在这一结构中主语能够通过动词的动作进行转移，按照构式语法的理论，这一构式本身就具有独立于词语的意义，对此类句式进行分析时，教师可以从整体角度进行整体的分析，以整体所具有的意义为依托进行词句元素的分析，将有利于句子的理解和把握。
2.顺应语言学习从易到难的规律进行语法教学。任何一种语言的学习都是具有其内在的规律性的，几乎所有学者都认为语言学习是一个从易到难的过程，从学校简单的基础的知识入手，循序渐进的对复杂句式和不规则表达。在语法教学中，有许多的语法规则要在教学中进行重点分析，但是单纯的理论枯燥乏味，学生缺乏学习兴趣也不易掌握。应用构式语法理论，对语法教学具有新的认知引导意义，构式语法教学能够实现语法学习中意义和形式的统一，实际上是将语言的准确性和应用性进行结合，对于学生而言也更能意识到语法学习的重要性。应用构式语法理论进行语法教学的过程中，教师需要做到的是针对不同基础水平的学生进行不同方式的教学。
3.创新教学手段和学习氛围。英语语法教学本身就是一项非常单调、枯燥的教学，学生在语法学习的课堂教学中经常由于缺乏兴趣而不愿学习语法，甚至不愿学习英语。这与英语语法教学中单一的应用课本和板书有很大关系，尤其是在中学英语的教学中，学生本身就处于心理较为活跃的年龄段，需要在英语教学中选择中学生感兴趣的与实际生活相联系的内容作为例句，还要适当的引入相关知识，通过现代化的教学手段进行展示，例如多媒体幻灯片、视频播放等。通过背景环境和教学方法的引入，激发学生学习英语语法的兴趣，丰富英语语法教学的课堂趣味性，为学生构建更为生动形象、容易把握的认知图式网络。
此外在英语教学中还要积极的应用构式语法在教学中对一些语言现象进行解释，通过构式语法在词汇和句法中包含信息量的丰富性来解释词汇和句法，帮助学生更容易的理解句子含义。还可以借助构式语法来探究某一句子的句法结构与句法意义之间的关系。总之，构式语法对于英语教学是一种新的可应用理论，在教学中要积极的加以引进和应用，但要求教师首选要做好对构式语法的研究和理解，才能准确应用到教学中并发挥积极的作用。
综上所述，构式语法是一种具有独特优势特点的语法理论，无论对于语言研究还是语言教学都具有新的视阈启发意义，尤其是在语言教学中一些难以解释的问题通过构式语法都能够通过构式语法找到解决问题的答案，尤其是构式语法理论下整体观的理论方法对于认知英语语言具有很好的指导意义。本文仅从三方面创新角度对构式语法在英语教学中的应用进行了分析，实际上构式语法在英语语法教学中的应用还有其他方面的借鉴内容，对于英语语法教学也是具有很好的借鉴意义和指导作用，构式语法是英语语法教学的全新视角，在今后的英语语法教学中还要加大研究力度，促进英语，开启英语语法教学的新篇章。
参考文献：
[1]林正军，刘永兵.构式语法视阈下的英语语法教学[J].外语教学理论与实践.2012（1）：51-57.